Revenge and Vengeance in Shakespeares Hamlet - Typical Revenge Tragedy :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

Hamlet as a Typical Revenge Tragedy Shakespeares Hamlet very closely follows the dramatic conventions of revenge in Elizabethan theater. All revenge tragedies origin on the wholey stemmed from the Greeks, who wrote and performed the first plays. After the Greeks came Seneca who was very influential to all Elizabethan tragedy writers. Seneca who was Roman, basically set all of the ideas and the norms for all revenge play writers in the Renaissance era including William Shakespeare. The two most famous English revenge tragedies written in the Elizabethan era were Hamlet, written by Shakespeare and The Spanish Tragedy, written by Thomas Kyd. These two plays use mostly all of the Elizabethan conventions for revenge tragedies in their plays. Hamlet especially structured all revenge conventions in one way or a nonher, which truly made Hamlet a typical revenge play. Shakespeares Hamlet is one of umteen heroes of the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage who finds himself grievously wronged by a powerful figure, with no recourse to the law, and with a crime against his family to avenge. Seneca was among the greatest authors of mere tragedies and there was not one educated Elizabethan who was unaware of him or his plays. There were certain stylistic and different strategically thought out devices that Elizabethan playwrights including Shakespeare learned and used from Senecas great tragedies. The five act structure, the appearance of some kind of ghost, the one line exchanges known as stichomythia, and Senecas use of long rhetorical speeches were all later on used in tragedies by Elizabethan playwrights. Some of Senecas ideas were originally taken from the Greeks when the Romans conquered Greece, and with it they took home many Greek theatrical ideas. Some of Senecas stories that originated from the Greeks like Agamemnon and Thyestes which dealt with bloody family histories and revenge captivated the Elizabethans. Senecas stories werent really written for performanc e purposes, so if English playwrights liked his ideas, they had to figure out a way to make the story theatrically workable, relevant and exciting to the Elizabethan audience who were very demanding. Senecas influence formed part of a developing tradition of tragedies whose plots hinge on political power, forbidden sexuality, family keep an eye on and private revenge. There was no author who exercised a wider or deeper influence upon the Elizabethan mind or upon the Elizabethan form of tragedy than did Seneca. For the dramatists of Renaissance Italy, France and England, classical tragedy meant only the ten Latin plays of Seneca and not Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles.

Frustration and Denial in Morrisons Sula Essay -- Sula Essays

  foiling and Denial in Morrisons Sula           A book which is most observe for its tale ab reveal friendship is found to have a more important theme and role in literature. In Search of Self Frustration and Denial in Toni Morrisons Sula, the author Maria Nigro believes Sula has much more important themes in modern literature. Sula celebrates many lives It is the story of the friendship of deuce African American women but most of all, it is the story of community (1).   And its not just any community is the community of the Bottom. African Americans who are a working(a) class community. Their main problem is surviving. They must work any job they can get so that they and their families can live a life with intellectual nourishment and a roof under their head. These jobs and sacrifices shape each of their lives. Nigro claims this is the most important theme in Sula because working-class people have been left out of modern literature. literature has been created for the cultural elite, and the rest of us have come to consider literature as a reflection of an elitist lifestyle to which the ordinary soulfulness cannot hope to relate (1).   Sula proves to fit this hole missing in the literature world. A community that seems to have all the cards stacked against them. being black during this era, 1915-1965, means fighting for survival. It means scrimping to get by, doing menial jobs, doing all they can to get by.   Nigro continues on describing the women of Sula. The struggles of Eva after Boy-Boy leaves, unable to get a overnice paying job because she was a black woman. Finding herself sacrificing her leg for the love of her children. How Eva shaped the lives of her ... ...introduction I believed Nigro thought the novel was important because it gave every working-class person a representation in todays literature. But by the end its clear she meant it gave the African-American working-class person, if not the whole race a representation in todays literature. Even though each group, African-Americans and the working-class community, are missing from todays literature I think Nigro could have made her purpose or thoughts a minor more clear.   This article gave me a wider prospective on the whole theme of Sula. And since I have chosen to write about the women in Sula and their struggles to pop off I found the article very useful in narrowing down my argument. And even though her thesis might have not matched her undefiled article, Nigro definitely understood Sula, the women, and the many themes of the novel.    

James Earl Jones: A Voice In The Crowd :: essays research papers fc

throng Earl Jones A Voice in the CrowdMarch 19, 1996People all around the area have it away the voice of James Earl Jones. FromStar Wars fans listening to the voice of Darth Vader to news junkies who hear avoice that dramatically intones AThis is CNN just before all the line of products network=s station breaks to children who hear the stately voice of the majestic Mufasa,the king of the jungle in Walt Disney Pictures= animated The Lion King - peopleknow this deep harmonious voice belongs to this consummate actor of stage andscreen.James Earl Jones was born January 17th, 1931, in Arkabutala Township,Mississippi. His natural parents, Ruth and Robert Earl, moved away to theMississippi Delta when he was an infant. Raised for the rest of his young lifeby his maternal grandparents, James Earl developed a close relationship with theConnollys. AMaggie and John Henry were always there, twenty-four hours by day, and they becamefor me, once and for all, my mama and my papa (18) .Less than three years later, the Connollys moved to Dublin Michiganwhere James Earl and his brother= Randy grew up in a remodelled chicken barn.His early school life had a great impact on his style of speech and diction. AOnmy first day at school, I could non believe my ears, recalls Jones, ATheycalled me James Earrrrl instead of James Uhl, as it had sounded in theSouth(40).After the initial shock of hearing Northern dialect, Jones Aquicklyabsorbed this different beatnik and style and embarked on the first half of along vocal journey leading to his distinctive speaking style. Until he was 14years old, James Earl Jones rarely spoke mostly due to shyness, preferringsilence to the sound of his own voice.Around the age of 10, James Earl Jones witnessed his brother, Randy,having an epileptic seizure. His grandmother applied the only let off she knew -a thimbleful of bluing dye - and told James Earl to run for help. Aftertravelling a mile through a Michigan blizzard and recalling the pot of his brother on the floor with Ablue liquid spilled out of his mouth, Jones= epicbattle with stuttering began. At a local store, Jones panicked and couldn=tspeak. After a time, he Afinally calmed down and the words came. The doctor wascalled. Randy recovered. But the stuttering - that stayed.(42)The same year his brother almost died, Jones was sexually assaulted bythe minister of a church he attended. The incident scarred him for life. Jonesrecalls, AI was afraid and very confused.

Role of Calculators in Schools :: essays research papers

For adults, math is determinationd in many ways, from configuring sales tax and tips to figuring gas mileage and averages but for children it sometimes seems as if the only time for math is for homework and tests. The initial purpose for schools in this department is for the students to see and understand the practical uses of it, however it is controversial that the use of teaching with calculators changes this idea. In the short essay Ditch the Calculators, the author Diane Hunsaker insinuates that the overuse of calculators in math class defeats the ultimate goal of education expanding the mind and increase students abilities to function as contributing members of society. As society enters the twenty-first century it seems that teaching and learning has an entirely new perspective. It seems as though the new technologies that argon introduced in school, computers and calculators, are not producing the same effects that learning without them once had. As a college level student I feel that, from my own experience, I am an advanced math student because the rules and principles were drilled into my memory and not that of a calculator at a young age. Depending on ones perspective, the use of calculators at the elementary school level is seen as either the solution to or cause of many of the problems affecting math education in this country. It has been known for a long time that early experience is able to shape the brain and behavior. In the stages of learning at a young age, to richly grasp a judgment, a child must understand the principles how and why in order to apply any significance or relation to anything. This especially applies to such a subject as that of math. Diane Hunsaker expresses her view as well in the following quote Math is as much about cognize why the rules work as knowing what the rules are (668). It seems that Hunsaker is saying that before rules can be applied, there must be a foundation for them. This concept for math, and in gener al, trains the mind by exercising thinking skills. It is apparent that she agrees by examining her direct statement, Math trains the mind. By this she also goes on to say, that by the ability to engagement these particular thinking skills that students are learning to think logically and rationally. I must say, that having the ability to think logically and rationionally in controlled situations has allowed me to progress outside the classroom.

Solar Energy Essay -- essays research papers

solar Energy     Solar skill is the most ancient kind of energy put up on earth, for it is as old as the sun. "Solar" means from the sun. The earth is only one of the many planets which is bathed in the suns overflowing energy. either second the run dry land receives 95.8 trillion watts of powerjust think about that for a minute. Think about how much power the earth just received in the meter it took you to read this sentence? It is well beyond the amount of power mappingd in one day. It has the potential to satisfy solely our energy needs always without ever having to use the pollutive fossil fuels ever again. "The problem however, does not lie in the limited source, as do fossil fuels, but in harnessing it." Every day solar energy is being used all around us. In fact, it is the indirect source of all energy and life on earth. Hopefully, with go on research, we will be in a place one day where we can directly rely on the sun for all our energy needs, and neer have to use pollutive fossil fuels, or nuclear power ever again (Cross 124).     It is hard to say when solar energy was first used by humans to make life easier. As far as we know, people have always used the suns visible range of light to see by, as well as to sit in the sun to keep warm. "Some of the first ancient cultures to use solar energy as heating were those from the deserts, and dry areas." In Egypt, Libya, and Algeria, where the sun is fiery hot in the day, but reaches freezing temperatures at night, builders discovered that thick walls of mud could solve this problem. During the day, they would absorb all the suns energy and leave it cool as a cave inside, and at night, the walls would radiate their stored heat, and keep it fairly warm inside.     These ancient people also discovered how to use the suns energy to preserve food by either drying fruits or meats in the sun, or baking them. They found t echniques to bleach cloth and cure animal hides. Whether by accident, or deliberate experimentation, these ancient cultures discovered that the sun was an incredible source of power (Bower 36).     Throughout history people have experimented with the many uses of the suns power. In the seventeenth century, scientists in Europe began rediscovering the sun. When a French scie... ...ar energy would be a more realistic option. Does every house need two computers, 3 TVs, a dishwasher, microwave, galvanising stove, video games, 3 stereos, nightlights in every hall, porch lights left on all night, lights on in every room in the house, blow dryers, toasters, electric heaters, air conditioners, electric gates and garage openers... the list goes on and on. One of the major problems that I see in our western culture is our obsession that we essential each have our own. No one is willing to share anything, because it might be inconvenient. All we can think of is ourselves , no thought for future generations or the environment. We need to get a reality check. There is not enough materials or energy left in the world for this to continue to go on. Solar energy is a serious option that we should all be considering. We need to learn to act as a community, not only as individuals. I dont know what the future holds, but I cant see this working much longer. Change will have to occur soon, or we will exhaust all our resources and chances of life on earth.                      

Solar Energy Essay -- essays research papers

Solar Energy     Solar energy is the most ancient kind of energy found on earth, for it is as old as the sun. "Solar" means from the sun. The earth is only one of the many planets which is bathed in the suns overflowing energy. Every second the world receives 95.8 trillion watts of world powerjust think about that for a minute. Think about how much power the earth just received in the time it took you to read this condemn? It is well beyond the amount of power physical exertiond in one day. It has the potential to satisfy all our energy needs forever without ever having to exercising the pollutive fossil fuels ever again. "The problem however, does not lie in the limited source, as do fossil fuels, but in harnessing it." Every day solar energy is being used all around us. In fact, it is the indirect source of all energy and life on earth. Hopefully, with continued research, we will be in a place one day where we can directly rely on the sun for all our energy needs, and never live to use pollutive fossil fuels, or nuclear power ever again (Cross 124).     It is hard to say when solar energy was first used by humans to sterilise life easier. As far as we know, people have always used the suns visible range of light to see by, as well as to sit in the sun to keep warm. "Some of the first ancient cultures to use solar energy as heating were those from the deserts, and dry areas." In Egypt, Libya, and Algeria, where the sun is fiery hot in the day, but reaches freezing temperatures at night, builders discovered that thick walls of mud could solve this problem. During the day, they would absorb all the suns energy and leave it cool it as a cave inside, and at night, the walls would radiate their stored heat, and keep it fairly warm inside.     These ancient people also discovered how to use the suns energy to keep open food by either drying fruits or meats in the sun, or baki ng them. They found techniques to bleach cloth and cure animal hides. Whether by accident, or talk over experimentation, these ancient cultures discovered that the sun was an incredible source of power (Bower 36).     Throughout history people have experimented with the many uses of the suns power. In the 17th century, scientists in europium began rediscovering the sun. When a French scie... ...ar energy would be a more realistic option. Does every house need two computers, 3 TVs, a dishwasher, microwave, galvanizing stove, ikon games, 3 stereos, nightlights in every hall, porch lights left on all night, lights on in every room in the house, blow dryers, toasters, electric heaters, air conditioners, electric gates and garage openers... the list goes on and on. One of the major problems that I see in our western culture is our obsession that we must each have our own. No one is willing to share anything, because it might be inconvenient. All we can think of i s ourselves, no thought for futurity generations or the environment. We need to originate a reality check. There is not enough materials or energy left in the world for this to continue to go on. Solar energy is a serious option that we should all be considering. We need to learn to act as a community, not only as individuals. I dont know what the future holds, but I cant see this working much longer. Change will have to occur soon, or we will exhaust all our resources and chances of life on earth.                      

Metal Detectors: Justifying School Safety Essay

How much is your childs safety worth? Are you willing to put a expenditure tag on your childs life? Many grooms argon putting a price tag, but fortunately several ar not. A shocking one in ten students has carried a weapon to tame in refreshful York. Statistics like this cannot be music to the ears of p atomic number 18nts. You present to wonder what civilizes are doing about this awful matter. A notion that has been around, yet a new melodic theme is helping pave the future on student safety in schools. It is alloy detectors. This new idea has ca wasting diseased controversy all over the world. Schools around the United States have turned to admixture detectors for their solution. I feel that metal detectors are a small price to pay when this matter concerns children. coat detectors are helpful and expensive. However, most schools are able to afford them, and they do not travail students repairs.Metal detectors ensure school safety quickly and effectively. They help en force a practice that is trancen in many areas, including airports and courtho accustoms. Many may argue that they beat too much time and require specially trained professionals. On the contrary, several schools have taken the same measures that are taken when conducting a poll. survey only use a small percent of the population for the actual questions, but it still represents the entire population. Countless cities, including New York, have set a predetermined method of scanning which allows them to scan every second or third student instead of the entire student body (McDermott 2). This measure is well monitored, and it has proven to be successful. Some schools have even made things move quicker by having the teachers enter through a different entrance, which also includes metal detectors. Metal detectors in schools are also enforcing a method that is commonly used everywhere these days. A student from Chicago states in a put across board that,Government offices have metal de tectors that everyone has to walk through before they enter. If I go to City Hall, I have to walk through a metal detector. If I go to court for a speeding ticket, I have to go through a metal detector. Why shouldnt kids have to do the same in school? Its a public place, funded by public dollars (much like government offices) and Idont see that it violates anyones civil rights to have to walk through a metal detector to ensure that a school is safe.Students lose many privileges when they enter the school doors because student safety is on the top of the list. If they do not want to be searched or questioned then they should not bring with them articles that are inappropriate for school.Leigh was right when he said metal detectors are expensive. They can range from $4,495 to $5,495 for the walk-through models and from one hundred to four hundred dollars for the hand-held models. This minor setback causes debates. Metal detectors may not be needed in all grades of schools. A vast majo rity of school homicides and suicides 179 took place in high schools when surveyed in New York. Therefore, various school districts may only need to install the metal detectors in high schools. Another aspect is that taxpayers already pay for insufficient funds. They should use the money for safer schools, instead of funding a new, state-of-the-art prison. Public officials need to look into where other tax dollars are going, and try and focus on acquiring it to go to schools.Students go to school to be educated if their education is impaired the school officials then need to step in. Students are also missing worthy time when public officials are required to search the entire school because of threats of a bomb or other life threatening incidents. All the kids are missing out on their education (Szaniszlo 1). This could have been prevented with the metal detectors. Although the threats are to be taken seriously, the officials would have a sense of relief with the metal detector s in place. Metal detectors are beneficial to everyone, and not just the students. For example, they enforce school policy and protect students. The school officials have a right to search with logical cause and this does not invade the students rights or privacy. The school officials are in daft parentis (in the place of the parent) to help maintain order in the school. Rules and regulations create a structure that is necessary to ensure a safe environment, . . . that will reinforce the Districts priority goal of safe schools for all students and staff (Code of Conduct). full asstudents must obey the rules, school officials have a set of rules to follow. Also, parents are allowed to search their kids room without a search warrant mandatory, so school officials should be given the same standard. They are acting in loco parentis therefore, like parents they do not need a search warrant. The in loco parentis doctrine basically assumes that students have no legitimate expectation of privacy in their personal property, such as purses, gym bags, or clothing (Persico 28). The school is now not only responsible for educating the children, but also for protecting them while in the schools supervision. School officials were not permitted to begin a pat-down search until the scanning device had been activated twice (NYSSN). They are obligated to search when they feel the school environment has been threatened.School officials only begin a thorough search when the detector has beeped twice on the same student. Only then are they allowed to search the specific area where it beeped. Leigh states that metal detectors instill a sense of humiliation in students (654). Students would not be embarrassed if the search was done in private. He also mentions the most harmful effect of metal detectors is their psychological impact on students subjected to daily searches (Leigh 653). I have to agree that it might cause such impact, but that it is worth the price. When a student di es on school grounds it also causes a sense of fear for classmates. Schools only have these powers because they are out to ensure our safety. Schools will use whatever message possible to protect he student body.The Columbine tragedy really awakened the American public. Who knew that two teenage boys would have access to guns and that they would intentionally use them to hurt others? Schools with the help of metal detectors would have a chance to prevent such incidents in the future. Metal detectors may not be a full-proof plan, but they would be valuable asset for schools. School districts are turning to this new phenomenon to better the school environment and community. Trying to work around the metal detectors idea or complaining about the cost are not the real issues. The students life is at stake. Nevertheless, to prevent the impossible from happening, adopting the idea of metal detectors is worth fetching a chance.

Chapter 5 and 6 Apush Outline

Chapter 5 * Thirteen original colonies is misleading because Britain ruled thirty-two colonies in mating America by 1775 * Included Canada, the Floridas, and various Caribbean islands * wholly thirteen unfurled the standard of rebellion A few of the nonrebels (Canada, Jamaica, etc) were volumedr, wealthier, or more(prenominal) populous than well-nigh of the nauseating thirteen * Some British colonies had strike for their independence while others did non/ due to the distinctive companionable, economic, and political structures of the thirteen Atlantic seaboard colonies and overly in the halting gradual appearance in the American way of bearing Conquest by the Cradle * Among distinguishing characteristics of rebellious settlements lusty race growth * Colonists dual their numbers eveningry 25 categorys Europeans * Dr.Samuel Johnson Multiplying like rattlesnakes * Also were youthful average age was 16 * In 1775, the most populous colonies were Virginia, Massachusetts, Pen nsylvania, nitrogen Carolina, and Maryland. * Only four communities could be called cities root Philadelphia (including suburbs), advanced York, Boston, Charleston * 90% of the spate lived in rural areas A Mingling of the Races * Colonial America had been a warming pot since the commencement exercise population was face in stock and manner of speaking, yet mottled with numerous foreign groups * Germans * 1775 about 6% of join population Fleeing religious persecution, economic oppression, and ravages of war * Mostly settled in Pennsylvania in the archaeozoic 1700s * Added to religious diversity belonged to different Protestant sects, primarily Lutheran * erroneously known as the Pennsylvania Dutch and made up 1/3 of habituations population * Moved into Penns backcountry * Their splendid rock candy barns give evidence of industry and prosperity * Clung to their German culture and language * Scots-Irish * 7% of population in 1775 * Not Irish at all only if turbulent Sco ts Lowlanders Had been transported everyplace a period of time to Northern Ireland did not prosper * Irish Catholics hated Scottish Presbyterian and resented the intrusion * Economic life of Scots-Irish was hampered, especially when English government put burden whatever hold inions on their production of woolens and linens * Early 1700s tens of thousands of Scots- Irish came to America, mostly to tolerant and deep-soiled Pennsylvania * Best land was already taken by Germans and Quakers pushed out into the frontier * Illegally but defiantly squatted on unoccupied lands and quarreled with Indian and white owners * Superior frontiersmen with ready violence for Indians * intellection that they kept Sabbath and all else they could get their hands on * They hated British government (or apparently any other government) who had once uprooted and still lorded over them * lead the armed march of the Paxton Boys on Philadelphia, protesting the Quakers oligarchys lenient policy towards Ind ians * Also led Regulator movement in North Carolina against eastern domination of the colonys affairs * Many of these hotheads (ex Andrew Jackson) eventually joined the American revolutionists * 5% of multicolored colonial population included French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swish, and Scots Highlanders felt little loyalty to British crown * Largest non-English group Africans Thirteen colonies had most mixed population * in the south 90% of slaves * invigorated England Puritans least ethnic diversity * Middle Colonies (especially Penns Woods) received most of later white immigrants and had astonishing variety * This variety laid the foundations for the diverse multicultural American individualism * Whites mixed with other whites, as were Africans from slave concern African Americans * Polyglot Native American communities emerged blurred tribal identity boundaries The Structure of Colonial connection * phone lineed to EuropeAmerican was a land of equalit y and opportunity except for the slaves * No titled nobility or pauperized underclass Most white Americans and some free blacks were small farmers * Cities small class of skilled artisans, shopkeepers, tradespeople, and unskilled causal laborers * Most astonishing could go from rags to riches for an ambitious colonist, rare in England * Contrast with 17th century America colonial society on the eve of novelty began to show signs of stratification/ barriers to mobility raised worries about Europeanization of America * Gods of war contributed to these developments * gird conflicts of the 1690s and early 1700s enriched a number of merchant princes in the invigorated England and middle colonies laid foundations of their fortunes with profits made as military suppliers made money import fancy clothes and ate with English china, etc * Prominent people came to be seated in churches/ schools according to rank * War plague created class of widows and orphans became reliant on charity * P hiladelphia and NY built almshouses However, still smaller number of paltry in America than England (1/3 of population in E) * In New England countryside descendent of original settlers faced more problems than descendents supply of uncl drifted soil grew smaller and families larger existing landholdings were repeatedly subdivided * Average farm size drastically shrank and jr. kids were forced to work as wage laborers or seek virgin tracts of land beyond totallyeghenies * South power of great planters were bolstered by disproportionate self-command of slaves * Riches created by growing slave population in 18th century were not evenly distributed among whites- wealth was concentrated in largest slave owners widened violate between rich and poor whites who would portably become tenant farmers * In all the colonies the ranks of the lower classes were further swelled by the continuing stream of indentured servants, some of whom were eventually very successful * Many paupers and con victs were deported to the Americas, legion(predicate) because of the strict penal code in England with over 200 capital crimesnot fans of king * terminal blacks they could not even dream of climbing the social ladder * People eared black rebellion SC legislature even tried to restrict/ halt their importation * To reserve cheap labor, especially in sugar of westernmost Indies, British authorities vetoed these attempts colonists thought this veto was callous even though NE slave traders also very much benefited from this * Cruel complexity of issue (think Thomas Jefferson) Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists * Christian ministry was most honored profession * Most physicians were seedy trained and not super esteemed * The commencement ceremony medical school came in 1765 * Epidemics were a constant nightmare, especially smallpox a crude melodic phrase of inoculation was introduced in 1721 despite objections by some(prenominal) physicians and clergy * Powdered dried toad was a fav orite prescription for smallpox. Diphtheria was also a killer, especially of boyish people. Grim reminder of one epidemic and the taking of their morality may collapse helped to prepare colonists in their hearts and minds for the religious revival that was soon to clean them up * At runner the law profession was not favorably regarded lawyers were regarded as noisy or troublemakers, drunkards or brothel owners sometimes donationies defended themselves in lawcourt Workaday America * Agriculture was the leading industryinvolved about 90% of the people * Tobacco continued to be staple crop for Maryland and VA (wheat also spreading through Chesapeake in tobacco ruined soil regions) * Fertile middle (bread) colonies with lots of grain NY was exporting a lot of flour a year A LOT * This was really good, and America was overall the higher of standards of living lived by the majority of others in history up to that time * Fishing, though infra agriculture, was rewarding and pursued in all American colonies but major industry in New England stimulated shipbuilding and served as a nursery for the seamen * Bustling commerce, coastwise and overseas enriched all the colonies especially New England, NY, and Pennsylvania * Commercial ventures and land speculation replaced any get-rich-quick schemes and became the surest avenues to speedy wealth * Yankee seamen were historied not barely as skilled mariners but also as ightfisted traders * Triangular trade was infamously profitable but small in relation to total colonial commerce * Manufacturing in the colonies was only secondary importance but included rum, beaver hats, iron, household manufacturing (spinning and weaving) * Strong-back laborers and skilled craftspeople were scarce and highly prized * Lumbering was the most important single manufacturing activity first passly in New England, but then spread elsewhere in the colonies * Colonial naval stores (tar, pitch, rosin, turpentine) were highly valued because Br itish wanted to fain and retain a mastery of the seas * London offered generous bounties to stimulate production of these items * Towering trees were needed for royal masts in that respect were restriction placed on them this shackle on free enterprise caused considerable bitterness * By the 18th century Americans held an important flank of the easy Atlantic economy, but strains appeared in this network as early as the 1730s * Fast breeding Americans demanded more and more British products-yet the slow growing British population early reached the saturation point for absorbing imports from America * This trade imbalance prompted the Americans to sell their goods to foreign, non-British markets to get money to pay for British products * By the eve of the Revolution, the bulk of Chesapeake tobacco was in France and other European countries, btw it passed through British re-exporters * Most important was trade with West Indies, especially in French islands West Indian purchases of No rth American timber and foodstuffs provided cash for colonists to purchase British goods * Due to pressure from British West Indian planters, Parliament passed the Molasses Act aim was to stop trade with French West Indies * American merchants respond by bribing, smuggling, etc Americans revolting, not submitting Horsepower and Sailpower All large but sparsely populated pioneer communities were cursed with oppressive problems of transportation, including America with its scarceness of money and worker * Snot until 1700s did roads connect major cities, but they were still deficient * Roads were poor (dust in summer and mud in winter) and stagecoach travelers faced problems like rickety bridges and runaway horses * Bad roads heavy reliance on waterways populations clustered along banks or rivers slow and undependable but cheap and pleasant * Taverns sprang up along routes of travel as well as in cities all social classes mingled tavern was another cradle of democracy * Also important in crystallizing public opinion and hotbeds of agitation as Revolution continued * An intercolonial postal system was open by the mid-1700s Dominant Denominations Two establish- tax supported- churches in 1775 Anglican and congregational * However, large part of population did not worship in any church, even in colonies that maintained established organized religion minority belonged to the churches * church building of England (Anglican) was official faith in Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and part of NY served as major prop of kingly dominance * However, it clung to a faith that was less(prenominal) fierce and more worldly than religion of Puritanical New England shorter sermons, less scorned amusements, etc * The College of William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train a better class of clerics for the Anglican Church * Congregational Church had grown out of Puritan Church and was influential formally established in all New England colonies except independent-mind ed Rhode Island * Presbyterianism, close to Congregational, was never made official in any of the colonies * These two combine with rebellion during early rumblings against British crown * Anglican clergy supported king but were handicapped by not having a resident bishop, whose presence would have been convenient for the ordination of young ministers people had to travel to England to be ordained and many non- Anglicans opposed the idea of creating an American bishopric because it would tighten royal reins * ghostlike tolerationhad made tremendous strides in America. There were fewer Catholics in America hence anti-Catholic laws were less severe and less strictly enforced. In general, people could worship or not worship as they pleased. The Great Awakening * In all colonial churches, religion was less fervid in early 18th century than century before, when colonies were first planted * Puritan churches especially sagged under two burdens elaborate theological doctrines and their c ompromising efforts to liberalize membership requirements * innocent ideas began to challenge old time religion Puritan predestination was questioned a lot, especially bit Arminians, who preached that free will determined eternal fate, not heaven-sent decree a few churches grudgingly said that spiritual conversion was not necessary for church membership (they had felt pressured) * These twin trends toward clerical intellectualism and discharge liberalism sucked spiritual vitality from many denominations set stage for rousing religious revival, the Great Awakening * Great Awakening first started in Northampton, Massachusetts by Jonathon Edwards, an intellectual pastor he proclaimed that through faith in God,notthrough doing good works, could one attain eternal salvation.He had an alive-style of preaching Sinners in draws of * George Whitefieldgave America a different kind of evangelical type of preaching (had an incredible voice) * His message even had Edwards to tears and Frankl in to empty pockets countless sinners evince conversion * Theold lights, orthodox clergymen, were skeptical of the untried ways (emotional and theatrical) of preaching * New light ministers defended the Awakening for its role in revitalizing American religion * Congregationalists and Presbyterians were split over this issue * Many believers in the religious conversion went to the Baptists and other sects more prepared for emotion in religion * Awakening had many lasting effects had an emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality and seriously undermined the older clergy, whose authority had been derived from their education and erudition * The schisms it set off in many denominations greatly increased the numbers and competitiveness of American churches encouraged a wave of missionary work among Indians and even black slaves, many of whom also go to the mass open-air revival led to founding of new light centers of higher learning (Princeton, Dartmouth, Rutgers, Brown) * Most signific ant Great Awakening was the first extempore mass movement of the American people broke down sectional boundaries/ denominational liens contributed to growing sense that Americans were a single people, united by everyday history and shared experience Schools and Colleges * English idea was that education was a blessing reserved for the aristocratic few, not for unwashed many, leadership not citizenship, males only * Colonists slowly and painfully broke out of these ancient restrictions * Puritan New England was more chaseed in education than any other section.Dominated by the Congregational Church, it stressed the need for Bible reading by the individual worshiper * Primary goal of clergy good Christians, not good citizens * Education for boys flourished almost from the outset in News England * This densely populated region had impressive number of graduates from English universities, especially Cambridge, the intellectual center of Englands Puritanism * New England also establish ed primary and secondary schools * Adequate elementary schools also put information in the reluctant scholars of middle and southern colonies (some tax supported and others privately operated) * South mostly wealthy families with private tutors General atmosphere of colonial schools and colleges were grim and gloomy most emphasis was placed on religion and classical language of Latin and Greek, not experiments, reason, or independent thinking * There was severe discipline, even for children, and even indentured-servant teachers could be whipped for failures as workers * College education was regarded (at least in new England) highly important because Churches would wither if new crops of ministers were not trained to lead spiritual flocks * Many wealthy families, especially in South, sent their boys abroad to British institutions * For convenience and economy, 9 local colleges were established during the colonial era small student enrollments (200 boys at most), poor education, curr iculum filled with theology and dead languages * By 1750 distinct trend towards more modern subjects * Significant contribution made by Ben Franklin, who played a major role in the launching of UPenn, the first American college free from denominational control A Provincial Culture Colonial Americans were still in thrall to European tastes, especially British * The relaxation of pioneering life had not yet bred many patrons of arts * John Trumbull aspiring painter of computerized tomography who was discouraged by his fathers remark that Connecticut was not Athens Trumbull, like most others, was forced to travel to London to pursue his ambitions * Charles Wilson Peale (GW portraits), Benjamin West, John Singleton Copley became famous painters but also had to go to England to make out their training only aboard could they find subjects who had leisure to sit for their portraits and had the money to handsomely pay * These people were Loyalists and were buried in London (sometimes) * Architecture was trade from old World and modified for peculiar climatic and religious conditions of the New World * Log cabin Sweden The red-bricked Georgian style was introduced in 1720 Williamsburg, Virginia * Colonial books was generally undistinguished, like art, for many of the same reasons * Phyllis Wheatley black poet, taken from slave to England, poetry book similar to Pope * BFrank autobiography, but mostly Poor Richards Almanac- shaped America only book that beat it was the Bible * Science was also making progress not as many superstitions * BFrank only first rank scientist produced in the American colonies * Spectacular but dangerous experiments kite proved lightning was a form of electricity * Bifocals, Franklin stove, lighting rod condemned by some clergymen presuming God Pioneer Presses Americans were generally too poor to buy books and too busy to read them * There were some private libraries, especially with Byrd family and the clergy * BFrank established the firs t privately supported circulating library in America in Philadelphia * By 1776 there were about 50 public libraries and collections supported by subscription * Hand operated printing presses brought out pamphlets, journals, leaflets, etc * 40 colonial newspapers by the time of the Revolution * They were mostly made of somber essays with news that was delayed to be printed but colonists were extremely interested to hear about * Newspapers were powerful source of airing colonial grievances and rallying opposition to British control * A celebrated legal episode in 1734-1735 involvedJohn Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer. He was charged with printing things that assailed the corrupt royal governor of New York (libel).Despite the ambitions of the royal chief justice, the jury voted him not guilty to the surprise of the judge and many people. This paved the way for freedom of the press. The Great Game of Politics * The thirteen colonial governments took a variety of forms * Eight had roy al governors appointed by the king * Three- Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware- were under proprietors who themselves chose the governors * Two- Connecticut and Rhode Island- elected their own governors under self-governing characters * Nearly every colony used a two house legislative body. The upper house, or council, was appointed by the crown in the royal colonies and the proprietor in the patented colonies.It was chosen by voters in the self-governing colonies * The lower house, as the popular branch, was elected by the people- those who owned enough property to be qualified as voters * Backcountry was underrepresented and they hated the colonial cliques almost as much as kingly authority * Legislatress (direct archetype) voted such taxes as they deemed necessary for the expenses of the colonial government * This self-taxation through representation was a precious privilege Americans prized above all else * Governors appointed by king were generally bale men, sometimes outst anding figures, but some were clumsy/ corrupt and just hard in need of jobs * Worst of this group was impoverished Lord Cornbury made governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702. He was a drunkard, a spendthrift, and a bad person. Even the best appointees had troubles with colonial legislatures because the royal governor embodied a twoersome transatlantic authority 3000 miles away * Ways colonial assemblies asserted their authority and independence employed the trick of withholding governors salary until he yielded to their wishes (since he was normally in need of money) * The London government was guilty of poor administration (left colonial governor to the mercy of the legislature) * They sh0oudl have arranged for his independent pay kind of of from these bickering sources bickering is persistent spirit of revolt * Local level administration also varied * County government remained the rule in South New England town meeting government predominated- direct democracy because of open discussion/ open voting * Religious/ property qualifications required for voting/ even stiffer qualifications for top executive holding * Privileged upper-class wouldnt grant right to everyone * ? adult white males, but gaining the property wasnt that hard so there were a lot of opportunities to become voters * Not many eligible actually voted left it up to their better leaders (actually corrupt losers) * Middle colonies modification of the two * 1775 not yet a true democracy, but much more democratic than anything in Europe/ Britain * There some democratic ideas planted seeds for later long time Colonial Folkways Life in colonies was drab and tedious (labor was heavy and constant) * Americans had most bountiful diet, food was plentiful, but coarse and monotonous diet * Americans had/ ate more meat than anyone in the Old World * Obviously they didnt have heat in Churches, poorly heated homes with inefficient fireplaces, no running water, plumb or bathtubs, not much garbage di sposal * Candles/ whale-oil lamps used for illumination * Amusement * Pursued when time/ custom permitted * Militia periodically assembled for musters (with lots of coquetry and enjoyment involved) * Several days of drilling- musters * North winter sports * South cards. Horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunts * Non-puritanical south dancing * GW could ride well and dance well * Lotteries were approved even by clergy * Stage plays- popular for south but frowned upon by Quakers/ Puritans * New England clergy saw plays as immoral they preferable religious lectures * Holidays * Celebrated over in the American colonies New England frowned upon Christmas * Thanksgiving- widespread giving thanks to God * By mid-18th century, Britains several North American colonies revealed some striking similarities * fundamentally English in language and custom, Protestant in religion * Other people and faiths colonies gave some degree of ethic/ religious toleration * Lots of opportunities for soci al mobility * All possessed some measure of self-government (but not complete democracy) * Improving communication and transportation * Self- rule was most important similarity * All separated by entire ocean from Britain led to struggle to unite for independence Chapter 6 As the 17th was ending, contest began for mastery of North American continent involving 3 Old Worlds (Britain, France, and Spain) and involved Native Americans as well * 1688- 1763 4 bitter wars in Europe (world wars) * Fought for control in Europe and New World and fought in both places * Americans could not stay out of it good thing because one of the wars (Seven Years War aka French and Indian War by America) set the stage for Americas independence France Finds a Foothold in Canada * Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in New World real estate, essentially for same reasons had foreign wars in 1500s and domestic strife (clashes between Roman Catholics and Protestant Huguenots) * St. Bartholomews Da y lots of people killed * In 1598, theEdict of Nanteswas issued by the crown of France.It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics new century France became mightiest and most feared in Europe, led by brilliant leaders and vainglorious ability Louis XIV * Reigned for less than 2 years surrounded by glittering court and mistresses * Also took deep interest in colonies * In1608, France establishedQuebec (by St. Lawrence River). The leading figure wasSamuel de Champlain,an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title Father of New France. * Champlain entered into cozy relations with the nearby Huron Indians and joined them in battles against their resistances (Iroquois of upper NY area) * Two fights with them and Iroquois were dead scared France earned permanent enmity with Iroquois * Stopped French from getting into Ohio vale Ravaged French settlements/ served as Britis h allies * The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king after muchos companies had failed royal almost exclusively autocratic regimedid not elect any representative assemblies or have right to trial by jury like those in English colonies * Population in Catholic New France grew lethargically (Landowning French peasants didnt want to move and Protestant Huguenots could not for religious reasons) * French government preferred Caribbean islands (sugar and rum) over cold wintery Canada New France Sets Out * New Frances one valuable resource beaver fashion hats (warm and opulent) * French fur trappers couriers de bois (runners of the woods) who ranged over woods/ waterways of North America for beaver * Also runners of risks * Two-fisted drinkers, free spenders, free livers and lovers * Named a lot (Baton Rouge, Des Moines, etc) * French voyageurs recruited Indians into fur business * Fur trade had drawbacks Indians recruited got the white diseases and hated their alcohol * Slaughtering mass beavers violated some NA religious beliefs and destroyed some Indians way of life * French and Indian trappers traveled amazing distances almost extinguished beaver population, causing bad ecological damage * French Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to change over the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers * Some were killed by Indians for doing so * Some made converts, but also had vital roles as explorers and geographers * Others sought not souls nor fur but empire * Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in1701to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley * Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana in honor of king do to check Spanish penetration into the gulf * Dreamed of empire and brought colonizing ships, but ended up killed by mutiny * In order to ontinue their efforts to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted se veral fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana most important-New Orleansin1718. * This outpost also rapped fur trade * Fertile Illinois had French forts established there and became Frances garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there The Clash of Empires * The soonest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists asKing Williams War (1689-1697)andQueen Annes War (1702-1713), pitted British colonists against the French couriers de bois with both sides recruiting any possible Indian allies. Primitive guerilla warfare neither side thought America was so important to need a large detachments of troops * Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain. * Spain probed from its Florida base at SC settlements, and French Indian allies ravaged British colonial frontiers * British failed with Quebec and Montreal but victories when temporarily seized Port Royal in Acadia (presen t day Nova Scotia) * The wars ended in1713with peace terms signed atUtrecht proved how badly beaten France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America later involved clangor over smuggling War of Jenkins Ear broke out between British and Spanish in Caribbean Sea and Georgia with James Oglethorpe fought against Spanish foe to a standstill * This small scuffle merged with big War of Austrian Succession in Europe (King Georges War) * France allied with Spain * New Englanders invaded New France with British fleet and luck * The War of Jenkinss Ear started in1739between the British and Spaniards. This small battle became a war and became known asKing Georges War in America. It ended in1748with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders, and France still clung to vast holdings in North America

O Pioneers!

O Pioneers Was written by Willa Cather and was first published in 1913 and it is a literary fiction. This book is about all the hardships of living in the planes or even alone the hardships and challenges that people had to endure in the life of a broach. O Pioneers takes place between the late 1800s and the early 1900s in Hanover Nebraska. The main character in the book is Alexandra a strong, young woman who bests the difficult lifestyles of living in the great planes.Some of the themes shown in O PioneersCould be self sacrifice, building a subtlety out of nothing, and Imagination of pioneers. An example of self sacrifice is Alexandra, she gives up close to of her childhood to do sure her farm flourishes and learning more effective methods of farming. Pioneers must have imagination because they have to be able to carriage at an empty plot of land and imagine the city that could spring up from the area or what their farm could potentially yield. Also pioneers build their civili zation out of nothing on the frontier.Its originally just a bunch of shutout and planes but farmers work the land and produce crops, and eventually it attracts more people. vivification in the great planes was extremely difficult for multiple reasons. The great planes didnt have very many trees, and without trees there was no wood to build houses, so most pioneers built their houses out of sod. The winters were long and cold and the summers were hot and dry. Farmers had to plant crops that didnt require much water because they had to carry their water from nearby streams to their crops.There were many droughts and grass fires often started because it was so dry. Also there werent that many people out in the great planes yet so they had to develop new technology making new farm equipment that would help make their farming easier. Women also play different roles in O Pioneers than the usual roles of women. The women work, and cross different gender lines on the frontier and for some women its a refreshing taste of freedom.In O Pioneers Alexandra owns land on her own instead of the men in her family. This is an overall provoke book to the general public, it is ostly accurate in the depiction of how life was for pioneers in the late 1800s early 1900s or maybe even for the life of a pioneer in general, except for It shows the successful side of pioneering. Most pioneers ended up in debt by picking the wrong plot of land or just using the wrong farming techniques. But it does show the drought that made the majority of people in Hanover sell their land which Alexandra later invests in. O Pioneers is a useful book for the general audience in depicting some of the hardships of life in the great planes.

Group Roles Essay

We take on many roles throughout the day and while most of these tie into our social status, personal duties, expectations and our behaviors they ar only ane of the few roles we learn about in m. Social roles ar used to predict the way an individual acts in a part and thither is a belief that they are the number of a situation. When working in groupings, roles exists that are non related to our personality or a result of our behavior. A superior john give them to us or unknowingly we may adopt them. This we select in all been doing since youth yet most of the time we are so employed into the roles we have taken on that we rarely take time to think about them.They have get under peerlesss skin as willing as breathing to majority of the workforce. Roles are not to be confused with personality. Dr. Meredith Belbin a researcher and management theorist regards them as clusters of characteristics, of which psychological preference is but one dimension.1 By understanding t heses definitions we open fire gain a familiarity, that when combined with certain practice exercises, will en qualified us to see roles working so-and-so drastically increase a teams effectiveness and overall well- macrocosm.When ontogenesis an understanding of these roles, it is important to keep in mind that your role can change from task to task. In addition, one individual can have traits belonging to several roles just as much as several individuals can share certain roles that. A managers responsibility will be the task of making sure that the team is not heavy in more areas then others.GROUP ROLES INCLUDING DEFINITIONSLeader or FacilitatorAn individual who enables groups and organizations to work more effectively to collaborate and achieve synergy.1 has excellent interpersonal skills, being able to communicate effectively with team members through good listening, verbal and non-verbal dialogue. This person does not need to have to be an expert but have knowledge of the t asks concept. Shaper Initiator EnergizerThe Shaper is a dynamic, outgoing member of the team they are oftenargumentative, provocative, they push the group towards agreement and decision-making, keen to come to barriers and embrace challenges.1 Completer-Finisher RecorderThey are never at ease until they have have checked every detail and made sure that everything has been jadee and naught overlooked. It is not that they are overly or irritatingly fussy their obsession is an expression of anxiety. They have a great capacity for follow-through and attention to detail. They are unbelievable to start anything that they cannot finish. They are not assertive members of the team, but they maintain a permanent sense of urgency, which they communicate to others to galvanize them into activity 2 resourcefulness InvestigatorThe Resource Investigator is a strong communicator, good at negotiating with flock outside the team and gathering external information and resources. Resource Investig ators are curious and companionable in their nature they are open to new ideas and ways of accomplishing tasks. 2 PlantThe Plant is innovative and will suggest new and creative ways of worry solving within the team.. Sometimes the ideas of the Plant may be impracticable due to their highly creative nature they may ignore known constraints when developing their ideas. Plants are often introverts who may have poor communication skills they are loners and enjoy working away from the rest of the group. 1 Monitor Evaluator ElaboratorMonitor Evaluators are fair and logical observers and judges of what is going on in the team. Since they are good at detaching themselves from bias, they are often the ones to see all available options with the greatest clarity and impartiality. They take a broad view when problem solving, and by moving slowly and analytically, will usually come to the right decision. However, they can become very critical, damping enthusiasm for anything without logical g rounds, and they have a hard time inspiring themselves or others to be passionate about their work.As mentioned earlier, there are many definitions and several methods, which have caused nigh confusion to say the least. Some Information that warrants further discussion regards the sharing of roles as well as quadruplex roles in a group. I was unable to find any mention of a role that would compromise a group if more and then one person took its position. iodine thing I did learn that was interesting is an importance in having multiple leaders/facilitators They do not have to posses all the traits of a great or good leader but help in moving the company forward This is a little vague but I still find it interesting and suffices sense if you look our Government processes.I am looking at the roles and with understanding of them now I have not found any papers discussing groups missing most of these roles I would imagine there are definitely times that pieces are missing and they w ould result in negative team traits. Its proven that one person can manage many roles that doesnt mean that just because one is short that anyone can absorb the responsibility. I find that even though I logically want o put the roles in an order I know look beat out or we sound I know its impossible because when I look at the characteristics of the roles they all have very defined strengths and in some areas its absolutely impossible to be strong at more than one thing. I could at least start with the leader but if theres no completer or evaluator then the task wont ever give way the leaders hands.Roles that I have participated in are all of the above generally leaning towards leadership if I have knowledge of the task, enough to ask questions and give answers. When I am not enkindle in the outcome or the object of the task I will usually take on the roles of monitor and the plant stands out to me as well. One that I know I am not interested in ever being in would be the Finisher That is a no brainer for me because without some pushing I will usually not finish the task and be ok with it. 99% of the time I am the leader and its usually by choice because nobody steps up or I am volunteered for it and sometimes thats fun but I dont always enjoy it, mainly because it becomes expected of me and it has to always be something big and consuming.At work, I am outspoken, enthusiastic, and very driven, when I am home, I tend to take on the roles of plant, monitor, and shaper. There is no problem staying far away from the role of a leader after work. I will and have taken on leadership roles usually when there is more confusion then I can handle. I am finding itinteresting that I choose the roles at home that are somewhat opposite of what I venture into at work. Discussing types of roles, filling roles and understanding the use of roles brings us to situation of fundamental issues that can cause conflict. There are several models for roles in groups.These models have differences in definitions, role titles, and come in of roles. There are many arguments on the amount of roles needed to make an effective team one thing that I have noticed to be universal is the amount of people needed to make an effective team. Managing a logistics company, I learned this fact first hand. We had an open floor for sales and operations, and then we separated the group into deuce departments, sales being one, carrier management the other then again, we separated them into teams again for our regions. Together we all worked as a whole and communicated information covert and forth all day. Sometimes it was like an amazing tennis match and sometimes it was like the other side just never got there .We were having many issues with one of our hoagy groups performing to task and another sub group would clean things up if they could. We analyzed the groups and kept asking what made the others work but not this one the carrier team had five sections with four desks in ea ch section since it fit better that way. All the desks were full except one group had trine people this being the problem group. We had factored that in the beginning though and had only delegated them a fair amount of work. We ended up blaming it on poor communication and lack of drive. The problem did not get any better and then we had another member of a team of four go on leave for six weeks. Two weeks later that team began having issues just like the other team of three and then we noticed the similarity between the two. Three people in a group could not perform the tasks as a whole. To make sure we were right we moved people around and made two new teams of three.We sadly realized that the group of three would fall apart because two people always formed an alliance against one every time. This brings me back to the universal number required for a team to work effectively has been noted to be four. By Dr Belbin from that point forward we never allowed a group to fall below the standard four employees for more than a day period .ReferencesManagement Teams INTL. (n.d.). Team Roles . Retrieved from Teamopolyhttp//www.teamopoly.com/cf.htm Wikepedia Team Role Inventories . (2009). Retrieved from Wikepedia http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_Role_Inventories

Employee Handbook Essay

When employers are putting together the employee vade mecum, they need to include some legal issues that whitethorn apply when thither are any disputes or how go along with some procedures. The handbook is used to familiarize the employees with the policies and procedures that are to be followed in the organization. Employers may include veritable provisions that dictate how the employees may reach out out certain activities without putting the employers business in jeopardy.The employers should ensure that they use the right language that exit be later be interpreted by the employees in the right manner and that may not be violating employee organizational rights. Most employers ensure that the employee handbook has certain restrictions that pr correctt employees from sharing the employers confidential information with outsiders. Such information is not usually available to the public and if it happens that it is leaked out, it would cause some insurance to their business.Howe ver, it is low the National Labor Relations act (NLRA) that the employees are free to discuss details about their compensation or conditions against which they have been employed with other people who are not part of the organization. The NLRB prohibits employers from giving policies of this nature. One of the Sections in the NLRA states that employees have a right to join or form unions or even be engaged in concerted activities.However another section states that there are unfair labor practices that may be faced by an employer if employees join or form these unions or engage in other concerted activities. There may be problematic employee organizational rights that are under the NRLA entirely the employers can draft them in such a way that they are lawful according to the Act. The employers may include some anti-union statements that may be used when employees engage in unfair labor practices.Whatever provisions are included in the handbook about legal considerations such as h ow the employer may violate the rights of the employees and generally how each party should conduct its activities without hurting each other. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS With many and different types of employees from different parts of a terra firma or even region, there is always a need for the employers to have certain considerations concerning the ethical culture of the organization. The ethical culture of an organization defines how the employees are to carry out all the operations in the organization.Employees are mantic to treat customers with much respect since they are the major source of profits for the organization. They are supposed(p) to take care of the interests of the employers and at the same time take care of their own interests. These interests should not be in conflict since they depend on the employer and the employer similarly depends on their efforts. The ethical considerations may also involve how to pass information to their core workers or the line managers or even to the top management.They are supposed to use a certain communication channel that has been specified in the employee handbook. Communication is one of the important aspects in a business and therefore employers may consider this as one of the elements that determine the public image that they depict to the general public. Privacy is also a matter of ethical consideration whereby the employees are obligated to keep information about their employer to themselves and not discuss their terms and conditions of their employment.Each organization and employer will have their own considerations to include in the employee handbooks but they should conform to the Acts of the National Labor Relations Act. Roger K. G. , Bankovich, C. & Browning,J. (2005). Whats in Your Employee Handbook? Some Provisions May Be Harmful Rather Than Helpful to a lower place the National Labor Relations Act. ASHHRA/IRI 24th Labor Activity Report. Papademetriou, L. (2003). Employee Handbook We Scare Beca use We Care. London Random House Publishers.

A Comparative Study on Family Education

Abstract In a lifetime , family is the head start school , in which parents are the first teachers for the children . Children are the hopes of a nation , and family cultivation is the elementary reading for children . There are many types of family education in the world and each of them shows distinctive features and is close responsive to its culture . And the Statesn family education is the most famous one among them . There are great inequalitys in the concepts of education , aim of education , methods of education and contents of education between American family education and Chinese family education .This thesis will complete the comparative study from the differences , the reasons and the results of family education between America and China . The author hopes to find a satisfied family education method through comparing the differences between American family education and Chinese family education . At the same time , the author hopes this thesis can provide some helpf ul suggestions for family education in range to make children grow more healthily and roundly . Keywords family education childeren differences education for all-around development Main Body . The differences of family education between America and China 1. The concepts of family education are distinct . The different education concepts between America and China lead children to receive differert education . In China , many parents only care about whether the children have a promising future , a good job , a good life or not . Based on these expectations , the majority of parents feel that their province for their children is to create as good conditions as possible they can so that the children will not worry about anything in the future .Chinese parents would give care to provide everything what they can for their children in the process of childrens growth . In short , they would like to sacrifice anything if their children can live better with their help . Therefore, in the process of childrens growth, the most important thing the parents concerning is to develop their childrens intellect , except for caring childrens daily life . In order to make their children have a good performance in study , become outstanding , or even become a famous someone n the future , they would not let children do anything except studying . Contrastively , American parents world-widely believe that the growth of childeren must rely on their possess strength and experiences. Based on this concept , most American parents emphasize more to train their childrens ability of independence once they are innate(p) because they think that children should form a self-supporting will and the capacity to live independently since their childhood . And the capacity comes from the training in the early age .In the film ?Gua Sha Treatment? , there is a scene that Datong orderded his son to apologize to his bosss son when his saw his son was fighting with his bosss son . Whats more , h e slapped his son in the face when his son ref apply to apologize , which gave his boss aquite a shock . His boss became confused why the father would show the regret by striking his son . This scene and the bosss confusion reflect the different concepts between the twain countries . Traditonal Chinese family education emphasize kindheartedness and bedience , so we can say that Chinese parents like Datong in the film always want to model their children .On the inverse , America children have more rights of autonomy because their parents emphasis on justice and freedom in the process of family education . 2. The aim of family education are different . The aim of family education is to foster the childeren to grow in some direction by family education . It is the restrictive factor for the direction of family education , deciding the general effect of it . So the aim of family education is the core of family education and the fundamental reason for the differences between the two co untries on family education .There is an essential difference between two countrys aim of family education , with to expect the child to become an outstanding personage and to hope the child to be an comprehensive and independent person giving expressions to the difference . To most Chinese parents , the aim is expecting their child to be a dragon , which is wang zi cheng long in Chinese . But American parents come hoping the child to be a man of ability which is wang zi cheng ren in Chinese as their aim . For Chinese parents, their aim is to do anyting to support their children to get eminent marks .What forms apparent contrast to it is , America parents give their children more training about improving abilities . They try to train their children to have the ability of adapting to environmental word form and the ability of living independently . 3. The methods are different between America and China . The differences of concepts and aim cause the childen to be taught by d ifferent ways and methods . In Chinese family , affected by Chinese traditional culture , parents educate children by control and seal type .There are three tips for it (1)Chinese parents adjust all things for their children in daily life . In Chinese family , children dont have to do any housework . (2)Chinese parents protect the children to excess in social activities . Many children are prevented from exposure to the outer world because their parents worry about childrens being affected by bad things . (3)Chinese parents have a rather strict attitude toward childrens study . Parents regard the grades as the only standard for future success . Tasks Sea strategy is often used in study .Chinese children are tired of doing many extra exercises . So Chinese children spend more time in studying than doing some other things . What about America children ? Lets talk about the famous film ?The Pacifier? . In the film , it may be unconcious , merely Shane Wolfe had let the kids m aster many skills by training them during the time when he cared them . So American parents bring up their children by the method of letting go but not indulging to exercise childrens abilities of independent living . 4. The different contents of family education between America and China .The differences of family education between the two countries are also reflected in the contents of family education . Although the contents of Chinese family education can also devided into moral education , intellectual education , corporal education and artistic education , but intellectual education has been the most important one since they go to school . However , the contents of American family education is abundant , which pay more attention to the harmonious development of language , emotion , knowledge and so on . It is so-called education for all-around development .

Vermeer’s Hat Review Essay

In Vermeers Hat The 17th Century and the Dawn of the Global World, herds grass leap out uses Vermeers scenes to interpret the effects of address on the world and the over every last(predicate) sphericalisation occurring. set up argues that this globalization had begun in the seventeenth century. He takes a look at Vermeers mental pictures, and uses them as windowpanes into seventeenth century autobiography to discuss further topics of interest. through with(predicate) every painting, it leads to a limen that causes a password point of the history of the world. put up st cunnings the story setting out in the city of Delft in the Nether drops.This reason does not simply restate history facts we all know, he goes much deeper than that, getting to the heart of to each angiotensin converting enzyme painting and the history shown throughout each one, proving his arguments to be true. Through every painting, it led to a door that caused a discussion point of the history of the world. In Brooks third chapter, he goes on to discuss the painting Young Woman Reading a Letter at an Open Window. The title itself is very self-explanatory. The painting has a young woman who is looking toward a window while reading a letter.Also in this painting is a table draped with a tablecloth and a spilt bowl of fruit lying on top of it. The bowl of fruit is what Brook uses as a window into the seventeenth century, specifically the Chinese porcelain, and how it began to become a part of Dutch life. Brook argues that the VOC (Dutch East India Company) had begun their interest and trade for porcelain shortly afterward 1600. He backs up his argument stating that among the most successful potters were those from Delft, who were descendants from the sixteenth century. Brook says,They brought their knowledge of ceramics ware with them and were able to set up kilns in Delfts renowned breweries, many of which had been forced to close down as working-class taste shifted from be er to gin. In these newly converted potteries, they began to experiment with imitations of the new ceramic aesthetic access from China, and buyers liked what they produced. (78) This shows you that this new change of potteries, and porcelain originated in the seventeenth century, and Brook has a good understanding of the globalization that is occurring.Through the go and trade of porcelain, Dutch people were becoming more global, and absolveding their trade to other countries much(prenominal) as China, Europe, and Spain. It also proves that his arguments are completely valid. He has his facts straight and does not only tell you, scarcely shows you through the paintings the history involved to back him up. In chapter five, School for Smoking, it does not directly deal with one of Vermeers paintings, however, it takes a look at the Delft manufactured Chinese plate, which leads to a discussion virtually tobacco.He Brook states that tobacco started in Europe due to Portuguese sail ors, and from there it spread, and soon became was in high demand. Through this sudden outburst of a need for tobacco, it made way for a growth in the global community, eventually being a contribution to the opium phenomenon. Brook states, From this new labor arrangement, a new governing body of trade emerged. Tobacco (along with sugar) was a crop that could be used to make the Americas profitable, while Africa supplied the labor to make plantation production in the Americas feasible and South American silver paid for goods shipped from Europe and the Americas to Asia.Together the triad prime commodities of the agesilver, tobacco, and slaves to mine the first and harvest the secondset the foundations on which the long-term colonization of the Americas rested. (132) Brook connects tobacco to the reason more plantations were built, and why slaves were needed more than before and how it helped the colonization of the American world. He states that tobacco started in Europe due to P ortuguese sailors, and from there it spread and soon became was in high demand.Chinese people thought that tobacco had medicinal purposes, while Native Americans thought that tobacco committed you to a supernatural world. If we skip back a little, in the first chapter of Vermeers Hat The seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, Brook discusses Vermeers first painting, View of Delft. This painting is one of the only outdoor(prenominal) scenes Vermeer had painted that is still in existence. The first window Brook opens for his readers in this painting is a visit of the city of Delft.This painting shows the river harbor in Delft. Brook first uses the herring buses in this painting to open a window into the seventeenth century. Herring buses Timothy Brook states herring buses in Vermeers Hat, are, three-masted vessels built to lean for herring in the North Sea (12). The herring buses give Timothy Brook a window to talk about the climate change and sickness in the sixteen th and seventeenth centuries. In these ii centuries, the temperatures were falling all over the world, creating increased sickness and shorter crop seasons.In Vermeers Hat, Brook says that the two herring boats in the painting are evidence of climate change. Brook also uses Vermeer to talk about the exchanges in the seventeenth century. He states that one of the benefits of the climate changing was the southward movement of fish stocks in the North Sea. This gave the fisher cat more success. Another window Brook uses to open up the seventeenth century areis the roofs of the buildings in this painting. In particular, he uses a warehouse, known as the Dutch East India Company, or as they call it the VOC.The VOC was as Brook states in Vermeers Hat, tThe worlds first large joint stock company, the VOC was formed in 1602 when the Dutch body politic obliged the many trading companies popping up to take advantage of the Asian trade gold rush to merge into a single commercial organizati on (15). This company gave huge advantages for the Dutch for maritime trade in Asia. It became one of the most powerful companies for business enterprises in the seventeenth century. Brook talks about how the VOC even affected a painter such as Vermeers life.The VOC for many Dutch meant a break off life. Due to this maritime trade, advances in technology were made. A couple discoveries were the magnetic compass, which allowed sailors to lose sight of the land and still know approximately where they were, paper, whichthat helped merchants to keep track of records, and gunpowder, which helped them make military advances. All of these windows Brook opens show the interchanging ideas, products, and climate. Brook I think Brook did well backing up his arguments about globalization.He uses evidence, and facts, and history, to prove everything. It is all quite logical as well, explaining how things confirm begun to change into a more modern world with exchanges of ideas and such. Brook s hows us that all of these globalizations we think of such as fast communications, and high tech objects all started from the descent globalization of the seventeenth century. And none of this occurred due to big companies and millions of people, it started by a few men who undefendable up routes and communications for us.As a college undergraduate student myself, depending upon your area of interest, I would recommend this book to others. I have never been interested in history, but it is quite interesting the way Brook uses hit-or-miss objects and buildings in Vermeers paintings to show the globalization occurring. So I would say if you love history or art definitely read this book. Even if you do not love either one of those, read it. You will definitely appreciate it, and have a much better understanding of seventeenth century history after reading it.This book is an easy read, with not a lot of hard vocabulary to have to understand as well. Reading this book makes you realize where all the trade and new ideas came from. Holly, You make somewhat good points. I made some suggestions and corrections. Your paper should have no extra spacing mingled with each paragraph (it should be 0pt between each one). Also, you jump around a little in the body section. You may want to just move your discussion of the earlier chapters to the beginning of the body section, so that the body then flows from the earlier to the later chapters. Good job though. Ms. Perry

Determination of water of hydration Essay

Observation of atomic number 29 sulphateNo copper sulphateLight blueAfter heating for about 2-3 minutes, of the pulverize turns lighter and then into grey-white.Water released as vapor is observed from this point. After heating for another 2-3 minutes, of the pulverization turns into grey-white. After heating for 10 minutes, the whole divulge of the powder turns into grey-white with some parts of light super acidThe whole part of the powder remains grey-white with some parts of light greenThe whole part of the powder remains grey-white with some parts of light green* Mass of hydrated copper sulfate (g) = (46.08 0.01) (43.78 0.01) = 2.30 0.02 (g)* Mass of water (g) = ( 46.08 0.01) (45.22 0.01) = 0.86 0.02 (g)* General reaction hydrate anhydrous salt + waterCuSO4.xH2O CuSO4 + xH2Om 2.30 0.02 (g) 0.86 0.02 (g)M 160 +18x (g/mol) 18x (g/mol)* n xH2O (mol) = n CuSO4.xH2O==(0.86 )(160 + 18x) = )18x160(0.86 ) + 18x(0.86 ) = )18x160(0.86 ) = 18x(1.44 0.04)x = = = 5.3 0.3Conc lusion The value of x in CuSO4.xH2O is quite standardised to the value on the label (literal value) of the hydrated copper sulfate jar (% of difference is 6%)military ratingLimitationsEffectsImprovementsThe number of experiments carried out is not enough (Random error)If the data obtained are inaccurate as a result, the value of x calculated will be inaccurateDo the experiment many measureWhen cooling the melting pot, water can be reformed in copper sulfate(random error)Weight of the melting pot may increaseUse a data logger computer to take the mass of the crucible continuously until the mass remains unchangedThe flame is too strong(random error)Some copper sulfate molecules may be decomposedKeep the flame at a reasonable height and temperature

Are Our Lives Governed by Fate or Free Will Essay

Our lives are governed by idle will. In the books Chinese Cinderella and Twisted the main characters use their free will to make choices that have consequences on their lives.Chinese Cinderella, by Adeline Yen MahChinese Cinderella is a story of a Chinese girl suppuration up Shanghai and Hong Kong in the 1940s.Adeline was made to feel that her birth was the reason her mother died. Her siblings blamed her and her become and stepmother had no interest in her. She spent most her childhood at embarkation schools. Although Adeline was sent to boarding school she still apply her own free will to chose to study hard and excel in school. Adeline chose to continue to do well in school with the hope of gaining her parents attention.Despite alone of the bad things that happened to Adeline she continued to strive to be the best in school. She chose to spend her date reading and doing homework. She received many awards. She used her free will to enter an international playwriting contest and she won. The result was that her name was published in the radicalspaper and this got her arrives attention. Adeline used this as an opportunity to ask to go to college. Her father agreed. Although her father selected her career as a doctor she was so happy to have the opportunity.Twisted, by Laurie Halse AndersonTyler used his free will to spray paint on the school property. There were consequences for his actions. He had to do federation service to pay for the damage, he got a probation officer and got his license sorbn away.Tyler spent alot of time being the victim. His father blamed him for most of the bad things that happened. He let things happen to him until one day he realized he could take control of his life. Tyler used his free will when he dropped out of the AP classes, started attendance all of his classes, returned the stolen keys to the custodian and apologized for stealing them, stood up to Chip, spoke with his probation officer about the consequences of a ttending the party when he was on probation and stood up to father when he blamed Tyler for getting fired.The result of Tylers action to take control of these aspects of his life is it provides him with self-esteem. This new confidence gets rid of the bad thoughts he had (like killing himself).Tyler chose to spend his time playing a video game Tophet. The point of the game was to make his demon (Gormley) powerful adequate to make it thru 66 levels of torment. In the end he succeeds and is given a choice to become the new lord of darkness or be reincarnated. He realizes the importance of choosing wisely.

Bhopal Essay

This case was created by the supranational Dimensions of Ethics Education in Science and Engineering (IDEESE) Project at the University of Massachusetts Amherst with support from the subject atomic number 18a Science Foundation under grant number 0734887. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recomm subvertations expressed in this somatic ar those of the author(s) and do non necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. More learning well-nigh the IDEESE and copies of its modules can be found at http//www. mass. edu/sts/ethics. 2008 IDEESE Project. Bhopal natural feature hap Chronology The timeline below documents the incidents leading up to and resulting from the 1984 Bhopal prep ar Disaster. Use the key below to quickly find information on presidential term measures relating to specific organizations, Indian national legislation, casualties, and economic conditions and profitability. A timeline documenting ensuing legislation can be found at the e nd of the main chronology.Key brown = central (India), state (Madhya Pradesh), or urban center (Bhopal) politics measures relating specific tot each(prenominal)yy to UCC, UCIL, Bhopal reachings, or immediate neighborhood of form green = everyday India national legislation relevant to conduct of line of business red = casualty-producing rig incidents violet = economic conditions relevant to Bhopal dress profitability ___________________________________________________________________________ UCIL= union Carbide (India) Limited UCC= juncture Carbide Corporation 956 Indian fantan adopts Companies Act of 1956 which requires affiliates of foreign companies to register as separate companies under Indian law and imposes limits on foreign investment and participation in all Indian companies. Union Carbide reduces its cover of ownership in its Indian subsidiary (then called National Carbon Comp whatever(prenominal) (India) Limited from 100% to 60% in accordance with impertinent ly Indian law by registering as an Indian high society and exchange sh bes to Indian citizens.All save sensation or two UCIL board members, all UCIL executives, and all sym calculatedal or seasonal employees atomic number 18 Indian nationals. 1966 Indian market for fertilizers and pesticides is pading as government adopts a regularise of policies, including efforts to emergence yields and reduce post-harvest losses of crops to pests, to make India self-sufficient in victuals. India had depended heavily on protrudeside food aid in earlier part of the decade, and government wished to end this. The domestic product of pesticides in 1966 is 14,000 metric gross tonnes, well short of what the government wants to supply to farmers.Union Carbide India Ltd (UCIL) establishes a new Agricultural Products Division to gull advantage of growing Indian market for fertilizers and pesticides. Initial activity involves precisely local construction (diluting skilful grade concentrate to make products for sale to users). UCIL applies for independence to carry give away the whole production puzzle come to the fore in India. 2 of 19 1968 establishment of India approves UCIL pictures to build fertilizer/pesticide formulation position in Bhopal. relegate of Madhya Pradesh leases land in the Kali Parade sphere of Bhopal for the congeal to UCIL on a 99- course of instruction lease in an area zoned for industrial use.The area around adjust is relatively unpopulated at time though there are two lakes nigh and the main Bhopal railroad station was near 2 miles from the coiffe site. Total population of City of Bhopal is estimated to be ab come to the fore 300,000 (the 1961 census put it at 102,000 but abundant in-migration from surrounding countryside had occurred). Adoption of Indias 4th fin-year plan, to run 1969-74. Plan goals include reducing pestiferous dependency on foreign agencies, particularly foreign corporations.The Plan outlines goals of requiri ng foreign investors to enter into joint cosmosiseures preferably than establish wholly-owned subsidiaries, and reaffirms requirements to train and employ Indian nationals at all levels of operation, to use made-in-India equipment and components whenever they are available, and to transfer engineering science to Indian affiliates. These requirements symboliset that the government was strongly interested in having chemic sics located within the country break-dance capametropolis to under precede all steps from lancinate material with intermediate chemicals through with(predicate) last(a) product on-the-spot(prenominal) rather than relying on grapple intermediates. 969 Bhopal full treatment begins operating. Initial operations consisted of make raw fertilizer and formulating (diluting to usable strengths) pesticides with US-origin technical grade chemical concentrates. UCIL industrial chemists develop a method of producing alpha-napthol that UCIL anticipates creatio n able to scale up to economically competitive production volumes. UCIL is reconsidering its business plan as the big making of alpha-napthol acidulates out to be more challenging than it anticipated. brass of India begins pressing UCC and UCIL to have UCIL plants shift from formulation using US- origin chemicals to full production in India. It makes issuing an operating license for the Bhopal plant conditional on its using domestically-made alpha-napthol. regimen of India establishes National commissioning for Environmental Planning and Coordination. 1970 1972 1973 Indian Parliament adopts Foreign convince Regulation Act 1973. Among otherwise strong controls on flows of money in and out of India it establishes a evasion for government control over Indian firms decisions on hiring foreigners as employees or contractors.Indian Government approves UCC-UCIL initiation Transfer Agreement and good Services Agreement under which UCC will provide the basic act upon design of a pl ant capable of producing SEVIN (a carbaryl pesticide used on cotton and other crops) and training for Indian performers of plant. Design Transfer Agreement limits UCC to provision of the butt on design and materials specification. Detailing the design and building the plant are to be under taken by Indians nationals employed by or contracting with UCIL.Government also uses powers to license technology consequences to guide selection of suppliers of components for plant to Indian firms as much as possible. 3 of 19 Engineers employed by UCIL who will be involved in plant design chatter UCC Technical Center in West Virginia to earn about US plant specifications and start process of adapting them to Indias conditions. 1974 Indian Parliament adopts legislation requiring that Indian companies partly owned by foreigners reduce foreigners ownership share. For companies with 60% foreign ownership, the new legal maximum is 50. %. UCIL complies by the end of 1978 through sale of additional shares of shopworn offered only to Indians these shares were held by 24,000 different persons or entities, with the Government of India itself holding 25% of UCIL stock. Indian Parliament adopts pissing (Pre electrical outletion and fancy of Pollution) and Air (Pre sendion and visit of Pollution) Acts. These establish the central government as the main standard-setter speckle go forth enforcement to state governments. Both Acts increase penalties for causing pollution but do not specify any emissions or ambient standards. 975 b flight Master Plan for City of Bhopal establishes a separate district for idle industry in an open area 15 miles from center of town, and zone the area where UCILs plant has been constructed for commercial and light, non-hazardous, industry only. City authorities want UCIL to take up its operations to this area. Indian Government licenses UCIL to erect up to 5,000 tons of carbaryl pesticides a year in Bhopal plant UCIL hires Humphreys and Glasgow C onsultants Private Limited, an Indian subsidiary of Londonbased Humphreys and Glasgow, to level the plant design and supervise construction. 976 Madhya Pradesh Town and Country Planning menu classifies the UCIL plant as general industry rather than hazardous industry. This allows plant to stay in its established location rather than move to Bhopals new hazardous industry zone. Bhopal plant begins production of pesticides and begins $2. 5 million see to expand alphanapthol production unit to accommodate Sevin production. India hit by drought farmers need loans from government to ride out the loss of harvests. They also cut back on pesticide purchases. 1978 Bhopal plants new alpha-napthol units components fail soon later startup. 2 million reconstruction project begun. Production of pesticides conducts using alpha-napthol imported from UCCs US plants. 31 Oct 1977 4 of 19 UCC and UCIL decide to shift Bhopal plant to methyl isocyanite (MIC) process to produce SEVIN because parent UCC regarded this process as more economical and efficient than its previous way of producing it. New Bhopal MIC unit based on design of UCCs MIC unit in contribute, West Virginia. (See separate knave on alternative methods for production of SEVIN or similar carbamate pesticides. winter Progress review of Bhopal project at UCC headquarters. Concerns about constitute of building plant and reduced estimates of potential pesticide sales lead to consideration of whether Bhopal project can be scaled back. declinationision is to continue as construction is too far advanced. conjoin spark ignites nearby chemicals because welder unaware of and supervisory program did not point out nearby flammables. Fire causes Rs. 6. 2 million ($730,000) in property damage, but no injuries to workers. 20 UCIL engineers sent to UCCs West Virginia MIC plant for training in plant operation and safety.UCC engineers sent to India for pre-startup inspection of Bhopal plant notify multiple deficiencies in safety measures. They also advise UCIL management of need to develop possibility plan for alerting and evacuating nearby population in e mercantile establishment of major liquid evasion. UCIL management later reports it had developed such plans city and state government officials offered in 1984 that they were not aware of any such plans. UCC Eastern Division brings up question of Bhopal plant at a global strategy meeting because of concern that it, like Institute WV plant, is too outstanding for the market. projects to export part of Bhopal plants production are not select because of potential negative effects on UCC subsidiaries in other countries. UCC sends 8 US engineers and technicians to Bhopal plant to suffice with startup and early operation of MIC unit. 1980 Government loans to farmers come due. Farmers shift to less expensive pesticides. Many of the newer pesticides are synthetic pyrethroids that are also safer in Indian conditions than carbaryl types like Sevin. In dian Government upgrades National Committee for Environmental Planning to cabinet-level Department of Environment.Both national and most state governments (including Madhya Pradesh) have Pollution Control Boards to inspect and enforce environmental laws. March Government approves UCIL application to retain 1 UCC engineer through 31 May 1981 renews approval through 31 May 1982 and then to 31 declination 1982. 7 of the 8 UCC engineers and technicians sent from West Virginia return home. The remaining engineer continues to serve as plant theater director until June 1982, then remains as a consultant. 24 Nov 1978-79 1979 June 5 of 19 fall A second gear UCC engineer team visits the Bhopal plant and repeats warnings about ack of contingency plan. Rebuilt alpha-napthol unit started up fails again and is shut down. Alpha-napthol imports continue. Bhopal plant returns a modest profit for the year. National census puts City of Bhopal population at 895,815. Significant populations of novel arrivals from the countryside have settled in shanty towns near UCIL plant. 1981 June UCIL/UCC review of Bhopal plant operation shows that the variable live of producing alphanapthol in Bopal is 4x the US cost and the variable cost of producing SEVIN in Bhopal are 3. 5x US costs.UCC and UCIL are both aware that new-formula pesticides coming onto market in India and other countries are likely to reduce demand for SEVIN. UCC wants UCIL to import MIC from UCC plant in West Virginia Government of India refuses permits because it wants the making of MIC undertaken in India. 24 Dec 1 supervisor and 2 workers exposed to phosgene leak during a maintenance operation one of the workers dies from effects of phosgene inhalation. UCIL management says he was at fault for removing his gas mask workers claim supervisors gave insufficient warnings.Accident reported to UCC UCC response plan includes additional training and some design changes. 1982 uncertain 10 Feb Feb UCIL notes growth of shantyto wns near the Bhopal plant and asks the city to establish a greenbelt zone around it to prevent further shantytown expansion. City does not act. 25 workers injured when a pump seal fails and significant quantities of MIC, phosgene, and hydrochloric acid gases escape into plant. Some treated on-site 16 sent to local hospital Workers supporter a local journalist get into plant he observes and writes about poor condition of plant and lax safety routines. local newspaper publishes the explanation but its warnings that a massive leak is likely are ignored. India Labor Department investigates the Dec. 1981 fatal disaster and recommends corrective measures. Bhopal plant is operating at less than half talent because of weak market for its products. Local competitors making cheaper pesticides continue gaining market share. spring Either UCIL asks UCC to send engineering team to inspect plant, or UCC does on own initiative (accounts vary, usually consistently with author effort to show UCC was or was not in close control of plant during the post-disaster litigation). 6 of 19 2 April May 3 electricians fulfill minor burns when one drops a screwdriver into an electrical panel and it shortcircuits. State inspectors recommend better insulating material of circuits. UCC engineers inspect Bhopal plant, issue Operational Safety Survey on conditions in plant, warn there is documentary danger of a frolic reaction suggest measures to avert danger UCIL management reports to UCC on follow-up, motto they will undertake all suggested measures, but do not act on the recommendation to increase the range of the fire piddle spraying system from 15 meters to 35 meters so it can reach the cover song of the MIC vent pipe.The last UCIL communication on followup, dated 26 June 1984, says all changes have been made except one to the SEVIN feed armored combat vehicle, which will be spotd when the needed control valve is delivered in about a month. summer Jagannathan Mukund, Indian c itizen trained at Institute WV plant, replaces US national Warren Woomer as plant manager. UCIL has to sustain failure of efforts to scale up alpha-napthol production alpha-napthol unit shut down as too unproductive to run. Worker transfers begin. Aug Sept fall 6 OctSplash of liquid MIC at plant injures a chemical engineer UCIL applies for extension of its Foreign Collaboration Agreement with UCC through declination 1987 so it can continue importing alpha-napthol. Indian government approves UCIL application for renewal of Foreign Collaboration Agreement with UCC, but only to 1 Jan 1985. Leaks of MIC, hydrochloric acid, and chloroform injure 3 workers seriously enough to require brief hospitalization 15 others less affected are presumptuousness first aid at plant. Some panic in close shantytown.State inspectors note several violations of normal operating procedures and recommend measures including red tags on equipment that should not be used. Labor unions complain to Madhya Pra desh Ministry of Labor about conditions in plant. Also begin occasional public demonstrations. Madhya Pradesh state labor ministry inspectors inspect plant but they are mechanical engineers with limited competence to evaluate safety of chemical plants. Labor Ministry officials do enter complaints with courts, but these will not be taken up for some time owing to long list of p destruction suits.Madhya Pradesh minister of labor says the plant is safe and berates opposition for its worries during question time in a December session of the state legislature. 31 Dec Warren Woomer, the last remaining American employee, leaves Bhopal plant. 7 of 19 1983 Various cost-cutting measures undertaken. Staff morale declines through the year as layoffs and resignations take effect. Experienced workers leave and are replaced by less see workers from other units of Bhopal plant or other UCIL plants.Madhya Pradesh State Pollution Control Board requires companies to declare what they are emitting i nto the air. UCIL declared carbon dioxide only, not the other gasses (including phosgene and MIC) that occasionally leak. Board insufficiencys sufficient inspectors to follow up, even after animals die from drinking body of water from a stream just removed the plant polluted by fluid runoff from the plant. Sept. fall Dec. Chief of National Pollution Control Board visits plant area while in Bhopal.Orders UCIL to fix flaws in effluent evaporation pond that permit leaks onto adjacent land. UCIL complies. Proposal to salvage investment in Bhopal plant by converting part of it to produce new carbofuran pesticide and supply it to India and other markets are rejected as economically unfeasible by UCC. Jumper pipe connected in the midst of hale valve header and relief valve header on MIC tanks to simplify maintenance. Bhopal plant manager Jagannathan Mukund given UCC safety award for operating 12 months without serious incident. 1984Bhopal plant operating at 1/5 capacity owing to weak demand. Losses near $4 million since 1980. Successive reductions in force play mean only 1 supervisor and 6 workers are present on each shift in the MIC unit ( social club guidelines state that the MIC unit should have 3 supervisors and 12 workers on each shift). Training of supervisors and workers has become less rigorous. April Madhya Pradesh government legalizes the shanty towns that have grown up just outside UCIL plant since 1978 by granting dwellers certificates of ownership of the land they occupy.Bhopal population estimated to be close to 900,000 and the shanty towns are notably larger than they had been in 1981. UCC approves UCIL proposals to write off the alpha-napthol unit, sell rest of Bhopal plant while retaining MIC unit, reduce UCC ownership share of UCIL to 40% so UCIL can be more independent. Neither the UCC share reduction nor the plant sale had been carried out by December. May June or July Bhopal Town Planning Board lists 18 factories as obnoxious and whence to be monitored particularly carefully. UCILs Bhopal plant was not included on the list.Sept UCIL engineers inspect plant, report to UCIL top management that 1) gas scrubber is functioning poorly, 2) there are poor communication in the midst of plant production and maintenance staff, 3) workers lack instruction on what do in event of runaway reaction, 4) safety meetings are held only half as often as specified in company rules. 8 of 19 UCC engineers survey MIC plant in Institute, West Virginia. They report concerns about some aspects of plant operation there and possibility of a runaway reaction in the MIC storehouse tanks (larger than the tanks installed in the Bhopal plant).Oct UCC considers idea of dismantling Bhopal plant and shipping equipment to Brazil or Indonesia. Asks UCIL to draw up feasibility study and cost estimates. UCIL reports back 29 Nov. Question of what to do is pressing because the plant will have no source of alpha-napthol when UCILs Foreign Collaboration Agree ment with UCC expires on 1 Jan 1985. 7-22 Oct Remaining phosgene and methylamine stocks at Bhopal plant are used up in making a last batch of MIC. 42 tons are put into armoured combat vehicle E610 about 20 tons into Tank E611. UCIL plan is to withdraw it a ton at a time In November and December and react it with alpha-napthol to produce SEVIN.The entrepot tanks are detached and the MIC production unit is shut down for maintenance after the batch is finished MIC unit production workers are assigned to other tasks. 31 Oct Curfew imposed in Bhopal after inter-communal riots sparked by news Sikh guards had assassinated Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Plant activities curtailed for several weeks because curfew affects ability of second shift to leave work and of third to arrive for work on time are affected. MIC drawn down in excellent batches. Nov last week of Nov. According to later testimony of plant workers, the position of second-shift maintenance supervisor was eliminated. Dec c ondition of plant safety systems at start of second shift Safety System vent gas scrubber (uses caustic soda to neutralize toxic gas exhaust from MIC plant and remembering tanks before release thru vent gage or flare) flare (burns toxic gasses to neutralize them) Condition on 2 Dec 1984 on standby since MIC not in active production but could be activated by plant operators in event of need insufficient capacity to burn large volumes of escaping gas shut down in November for replacement of a corroded pipe MIC process vents rerouted to the vent gas scrubber while repairs proceed shut down June 1984 and coolant (Freon) drained for use elsewhere in plant refrigeration system (keep MIC at temperatures of 0-5 degrees C (32 to 42 degrees F) where it is less reactive) firewater spray pipes (to control escaping usable but insufficient height to reach gasses, cool over-heated equipment or douse top of vent stack fires) 9 of 19 afety valve between MIC storage tanks and MIC holding tank in S EVIN production area working(a) designed to hold MIC in at normal force per unit areas and release it if tweet too high. there are 2 competing versions of events on December 2nd between 9 and 11 pm. The first is preferred by most authors who have studied the events the second is offered by only a few. *See note at end for more information about the controversy. Divergent accounts of how water entered Tank E610 Version 1 water- race of pipes 8-9 pm Second-shift production superintendent orders MIC plant supervisor to flush several pipes running from the phosgene system to the scrubber via the MIC storage tanks.MIC unit workers are in charge of the flushing, but maintenance department is responsible for inserting the set down flummox (a solid disk) into pipe above the water washing inlet as plant manual requires. These take 30 minutes-2 hours to install. The MIC unit workers were apparently not aware that installation is a required safety procedure, and slip bind is not installe d first. Temperature of MIC in tanks is between 15 and 20 degrees C . 9. 30 Water washing begins. One bleeder valve (overflow device) downstream from the flushing was blocked so water did not come out as it was supposed to. It accumulated in the pipes. A worker shut off the water flow but the plant supervisor ordered that the washing resume.By then water had risen past a leaking isolation valve in the lines being washed and got into the relief valve pipe 20 feet above ground. by 10. 30 pm Water has flowed from the relief valve pipe through the jumper pipe into the process pipe through valves normally kept open. Water gets Water washing proceeded as described but none of the water used for washing traveled far enough down the right pipe to enter Tank E610. Version 2 antagonize 10 of 19 through an open blow-down valve that is part of the nitrogen pressurization system. It is unclear whether the valve had been left open or had failed to fully seal when last unappealing. Water then f lows into tank E610 via a normally-open isolation valve. 10. 30-10. 45 pm Second shift goes off work third shift comes on. washables continues after second shift worker briefs third shift worker on build of the job. around 10. 30 pm A disgruntled worker removes a pressure gauge on a pipe leading to Tank E610 and connects a water hose to the coupler. Water enters Tank E610 shared account of responses to detection of problems 11 pm Third shift control room operator notices pressure gauge connected to Tank E610 has risen from a reading of about about 2 psi at the start of the shift to 10 psi. This is within the normal 2-25 psi range, so arouses no concern. Control room lacks any reliable way of monitoring tank temperatutre. about 11. 30 pm Workers in area notice MIC smell, see MIC leak near the scrubber.Find MIC and dirty water coming out a branch of the relief valve pipe on the downstream side of the safety valve, away from the tank area. They set up a water spray to neutralize the leaking MIC and inform control room forcefulness of situation and their actions. They then take their regular tea break, continuing to discuss the situation and what they should do next. 3 December about 12. 15 am Control room operator notices that control room pressure indicator for Tank E610 reads 25-30 psi about 12. 30 am . Control room operator notices that phonograph needle on pressure indicator for Tank E610 is pinned to the maximum reading of 55 psi. Control room operator goes out to tank area to check gauges on tank.While in tank area he hears a safety valve pop, hears rumbling in tank, and feels heat emanating from it. Returns to control room to engage the gas vent scrubber. Caustic soda does not flow as it should. A cloud of gas escapes from the scrubber stack. by 12. 40 am Plant supervisor suspends operation of the MIC plant, turns on the in-plant and external toxic gas sirens. remote sirens audible in nearby neighborhoods are turned off after about five minutes. Opera tors turn on the fire water sprayers but water cannot reach the gas cloud forming at the top of the scrubber stack. Efforts to cool Tank E610 with the refrigeration system fail because the Freon had been drained. Gas escapes for about 2 hours. 11 of 19 efore 1 am Plant supervisor realizes that tank E619, the designated spare, is not empty, so workers cannot relieve the pressure in E610 by transferring any MIC to E619. by 1 am gas smell is obvious outside the plant nearby residents awake at the time or awakened by noise and comprehend the gas odor start fleeing in panic. 1. 30 am Bhopal police chief informed of leak and panic by an on-duty officer who ran to his house no significant police mobilization follows. about 2. 30 am Bhopal plant external siren for warning the neighborhood is turned on again about 3 am Army engineer units with trucks are mobilized after a retired brigadier general requests help evacuating workers from his factory near the UCIL plant (but not under the stron gest gas concentrations).Army unit then expands operations to assist general populace by transporting injured to hospitals and clinics. Some mobilization of city ambulances. Medical personnel hearing of situation head to hospitals and clinics. before 8 am Madhya Pradesh governor orders closure of plant positivist arrest of plant manager and 4 other employees. afternoon Head of India Pollution Control Board informed of accident. Efforts to learn points from Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board fail because phone calls cannot get through. surround conversation with UCIL office in New Delhi (also unable to get phone calls through to the plant) provides some information about possible causes. ate afternoon Indian Central Bureau of Investigation takes control of plant and UCIL records there. CBI agents begins interviewing plant supervisors and workers bar entry by anyone else, including other UCIL employees. Dec Many government offices and businesses in Bhopal closed dead buried or cremated in accordance with their families religious traditions initial treatment of injured way out 18-19 Dec Under government supervision the MIC still in storage at the UCIL is plant is neutralised by combining with alpha-napthol to make finished pesticides. Local population leaves town as a precaution. 1985 July 1985-98 1994 1998 Madhya Pradesh government rejects UCIL application for renewal of operating license.Plant closed Some work on cleanup of plant site by UCIL. UCC sells its share of UCIL to McLeod Russell (India) Limited. McLeod Russell renames UCIL Eveready Industries India, Ltd. State of Madhya Pradesh takes over plant site from Eveready Industries. 12 of 19 * posting on the two versions of how water reached storage tank 610. Timelines of the alternate possibilities are constructed from the works of several Indian authors who collectively used interviews with plant staff, court depositions by plant staff, interviews with local residents and officials, UCIL executives and UCC technicians, and UCIL or UCC documents obtained during the post-disaster litigation.Most of the detail comes from Paul Srivastava, Bhopal Anatomy of a Crisis (Cambridge, MA Ballinger, 1987),and Sanjoy Hazarika, Bhopal The Lessons of a Tragedy (New Delhi Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 1987), who take different views but are careful to acknowledge areas of uncertainty. The initial exposition of the water-washing explanation was provided in an Indian government report, S. Varadarajan et al. Report on Scientific Studies in the Factors Related to Bhopal Toxic Gas Leakage (New Delhi Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dec 1985). The sabotage theory was developed by consulting engineers from Arthur D Little, Inc. commissioned by UCC to investigate the causes. It was publicly laid out in Ashok S. Kalelkar, Investigation of Large-Magnitude Incidents Bhopal as a Case Study, in I. Chem. E. Symposium Series No. 110 The invention of Chemical Engineers 1988, p 561.Version 1 in the timeline, favored by local and international trade union establishatives, local activists, the Indian government, transnational environmental and consumer organizations, and most technical experts (see Chemical and Engineering give-and-take 4 July 1988) is based on known water-washing activities. Proponents of version 2, favored by UCC after its investigators were able to visit the plant in early 1985, point out that the water washing occurred a good infinite away from the storage tanks and there is no evidence water ran through the connections from the washing area to the storage tanks. They also point to evidence that the pressure gauge on the pipe leading into Tank 610 was observe to be missing when tank area was surveyed before 10 am on Dec tertiary and a replacement gauge was installed. The most thorough summary of this version is Themistocles DSilva, The Black misfortune of Bhopal 1993 who does state clearly that he was a UCIL employee though not at the Bhopal plant in the 1980s. ) eve if sabotage were involved, no commentator thinks the saboteur was trying to cause a catastrophic gas leak knowledge of safety hazards among the workers was spotty enough that very few of them understood the full effect of introducing water into the MIC storage tanks. The controversy was sharpened in the course of the extremely acrimonious litigation between the Government of India and UCC. UCC first raised the sabotage allegation in 1985 and repeated it in 1988 but never named the guess saboteur. A worker believing he is the suspect publicly challenged UCC to name the suspect and denied that he had any involvement in sabotage.UCC planned to wait until the trial before the Indian autonomous court of law to do so out-of-court settlement made that unnecessary and it never publicly revealed the full basis of its suspicions. In a FAQ section of its website on Bhopal (www. bhopal. com) Union Carbides answer to the question of if there was sabotage why hasnt the c ompany named anyone, it says that the name is known to Indian enforcement authorities. While a useful way to avoid smear suits, the continuing refusal to provide a name response is interpreted as weakening UCCs claim by those who reject the sabotage theory. Notice that the contending versions of events between 9 and 11 pm on December 2nd only provide different explanations of how water got into MIC storage tank 610.Everyone who has studied the disaster agrees that the injuries to neighboring residents were caused by an unneutralized cloud of leaked gas that escaped through the vent, and that the reaction producing this cloud was triggered by water contamination. though the concrete shielding of the storage tanks cracked above Tank 610 (indicating that its temperature 13 of 19 got above cd degrees F), the tank itself was found to be uncracked when inspected after remaining contents were neutralized and removed in mid-December 1984. There is no substantial disagreement about the con ditions of the safety systems that night or on the responses of the supervisors and workers after the small MIC leak was noticed around 11. 30.Nor is there any significant disagreement about the inadequacy of contingency plans for in-plant response and evacuation of neighboring settlements, the poor communication about hazards with city and state authorities, or the inadequateness of warnings to surrounding settlements when the gas cloud formed. Descriptions of the extent and timing of action by city officials, state officials, soldiery units in Bhopal, and national government officials also vary very little controversy about government response is focused on the adequacy of actions in the days, months, and years following the disaster. 14 of 19 Bhopal Gas Disaster Chronology Ensuing Litigation 985 March UCC and Government of India investigatory teams conclude independently that runaway chemical reaction causing MIC gas cloud was caused by water getting into Tank 610 Indian Parlia ment adopts Bhopal Disaster Relief Act making Indian government the sole legal representative for all victims of the Bhopal disaster. US federal partition lawcourt consolidates all lawsuits pending in US about Bhopal gas leak into one case, Union of India v. Union Carbide Corporation. rest of year Victims and victim advocates complain about lack of effective relief. rest of year UCC stock declines total stock value of company in December put at approximately $3 one thousand million. UCC sells off assets (mainly petrochemicals and consumer product divisions) for $3. 5 gazillion and borrows $2. 8 billion to fend off $5. million takeover bid by GAF (General Analine and Film, another specialty chemical maker) 1986 Government of India lawyers and UCC lawyers begin discussion of an out-of-court settlement. Union Carbide proposes a settlement amount of $350 million under arrangements that it estimates will buzz off a fund for Bhopal victims of between $500-600 million over 20 years. Government rejects this offer as insufficient. Indian and foreign activist groups supporting victims have already publicized their own estimates contending that damages are at least $3 billion if loss of animals, loss of income from inability to work, loss of business in the weeks after the gas release, and related damages are also taken into account. April U. S.Occupational Safety and Health establishment proposed a $1. 4 million fine against Union Carbide Corp, based on results of its September 1985 inspection of five of 18 plant units at Institute, West Virginia. OSHA alleges 221 violations of 55 wellness and safety laws, listing 72 of the 221 as serious (the category for violations creating conditions in which there is substantial probability of death or significant injury. US Federal District Court rules on a preliminary motion in Government of India v. Union Carbide Corporation invoking forum non conveniens doctrine it determines that trials relating to injuries suffered in th e Bhopal disaster should be held in India. March May 5 of 19 Sept. Dec. Government of India proceeds against UCC in District Court in Bhopal, seeking $3 billion in total requital for 630,000 persons in Bhopal area. Bhopal District court orders UCC to hold $3 billion in unencumbered assets as collateral while lawsuit pending. This to prevent conscious a run-down of assets, rumors of which were paramount in USA and India at the time. UCC offers $50 million, then $80 million in remuneration, amounts derived from typical Indian settlements. Amounts widely criticized, viewed as insulting by victim groups, rejected by Government of India. 1987 Jan rest of year 1988 Victim lawsuits continue in Indian courts.State of Madhya Pradesh also files criminal charges against Warren Anderson, then chief operating officer of UCC, and several UCIL executives or plant supervisors for their roles in causing the disaster. 1989 Feb Under prodding by Indian despotic Court, UCC and Government of India a gree to a $470 million settlement of all Bhopal gas leak-related claims. arbitrary Court endorses settlement, making it binding on both parties. It also grants immunity against criminal charges arising from the gas leak. The $470 million is paid to the Government of India as sole legal representative of the victims. 36 special courts established in Bhopal to deal with applications for compensation Value of UCC stock rebounds somewhat with news of settlement.UCC CEO Robert Kennedy (replaced Anderson in 1987) completes reorganization of UCC into a holding company with 3 main divisions chemicals and plastics, industrial products, carbon products. 1990 Oct 2 groups of victims file class action suits in Texas alleging that India failed to represent them adequately because of government agencies ownership of UCIL stock, and therefore did not secure them sufficient compensation. Consistent with 16 of 19 US Court of Appeals upholds US District Court ruling that Bhopal disaster litigation s hould proceed in India rather than the USA. UCC sells off last petrochemicals and consumer products divisions norms of mutual respect for court decisions, US courts refuse to review the Indian Supreme Courts ruling. Nov.Government of Madhya Pradesh submits final list of names of victims to be compensated for injuries suffered in gas leak to Indian Supreme Court. Total deaths attributable to gas exposure put at 3,828. 1991 Oct Indian Supreme Court confirms compensation settlement, issues ruling modifying certain parts of 1989 judgment. These include UCC establishment of a trust fund to support a new hospital in Bhopal to treat victims ongoing health problems and revoking immunities from criminal charges. District Sessions Court in Bhopal reinstates charges of culpable manslaughter not amounting to murder and lesser charges relating to voluntary botheration of harm against Warren Anderson and 8 UCIL executives or supervisors. 1992 Apr 1993 Mar.NY Times reports that India has paid 700 Bhopal claims government attributes delay to complexities of verifying the claims given chaotic record keeping at the time. Victim advocates blame on government incompetence. US Supreme Court declines to review federal court decisions in 1990 cases dismissing suits against India. UCC establishes the trust fund. Oct. 1994 Apr Nov Dec Indian Supreme Court approves UCC plans to sell its 50. 9% share of UCIL proceeds to be given to Trust Fund for hospital in Bhopal. UCC completes sale of UCIL to McLeod Russell (India) Ltd. of Calcutta for approximately $93 million UCC provides initial payment of proceeds into Trust Fund.Ten-Year Impact of Bhopal Disaster on UCC year ending 31 Dec. 1984 total assets $10,518 million capital $7962 million year ending 31 Dec. 1994 $5028 million $2479 million 17 of 19 net sales net income R&D spending employees from UCC annual reports $9608 million $323 million $265 million 98,666 $4653 million $379 million $136 million 12,004 1999 Jan 2000 Mar break actio n suit, Bano v. Union Carbide Corporation, filed in US Federal Courts by Haseena Bi and other organizations representing residents of Bhopal seeking compensation for gas-leak related injuries and for further harm from exposure to contaminants afterward under US Alien Tort Claims Act.US District Court dismisses Bano case UCC completed payments to Trust Fund, which now totals $100 million. Construction of hospital is complete and physicians and other staff being recruited. Aug 2001 Trust Fund-financed Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research Centre begins treating patients. 2004 July Indian Supreme Court orders government to release all additional settlement pecuniary resource to the victims. Indian newspapers reports after all claims were paid there was still about $327 million in the fund because of interest earned while the money was in escrow pending distribution. Indian nationals file Janki Bai Sahu v. Union Carbide Corporation in US Federal District Court.Suit seeks compensation f or personal injuries claimed to be result of exposure to contaminated water and remedy work at former UCIL plant after the gas leak. Nov 2005 Apr Indian Supreme Court grants Indian Government Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims request for an extension of deadline on distribution of remaining funds and extends it to April 30, 2006. Indian newspapers report that approximately $390 million remains in the fund. US Federal District Court dismisses two of the three compensation claims raised in the Janki Bai Sahu case. Dec 18 of 19 2006 Sept Indian newspapers report that the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims has completed paying out all claims to listed victims of initial gas leak.The Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York upholds the dismissal of claims in Bano vs. Union Carbide Corporation. Federal District Court dismisses remaining claim in Janki Bai Sahu case. 2007 Mar A group of Indian citizens files a new class action suit, Jagarnath Sahu et al. v. Union Carbide Corporation and Warren Anderson, seeking compensation for damage to six various(prenominal) properties allegedly polluted by contaminants from the Bhopal plant, as well as the remediation of property in 16 colonies squatter settlements adjoining the plant. Federal Courts issue a stay suspension of proceedings pending resolution of appeal in Janki Bai Sahu case as the issues in litigation are so similar. -end- Nov 19 of 19